2. Another excellent method consists in transferring the same chord or its inversion from one orchestral group to another. This operation demands perfect balance in progression of parts as well as register. The first group strikes a chord of short value, the other group takes possession of it simultaneously in the same position and distribution, either in the same octave or in another. The dynamic gradations of tone need not necessarily be the same in both groups.

Examples:

Ivan the Terrible, commencement of the overture (cf. Ex. 85).

No. 244. Snegourotchka 140.

Amplification and elimination of tone qualities.

The operation which consists in contrasting the resonance of two different groups (* or the different timbres of one and the same group), either in sustained notes or chords, transforms a simple into a complex timbre, suddenly, or by degrees. It is used in establishing a crescendo. While the first group effects the crescendo gradually, the second group enters piano or pianissimo, and attains its crescendo more rapidly. The whole process is thereby rendered more tense as the timbre changes. The converse operation—the transition from a complex to a simple timbre, by the suppression of one of the groups, belongs essentially to the diminuendo.

Examples:

No. 245. Snegourotchka 313.

" 140 (cf. Ex. 244).

A Fairy Tale V.

Shéhérazade, 2nd movement D (cf. Ex. 74).

* " 4th movement p. 221.

No. 246. Servilia 228; cf. also 44.

The Christmas Night 165 (cf. Ex. 143).

No. 247. The Tsar's Bride, before 205.

* No. 248. Russian Easter Fête D.

* No. 249-250. Legend of Kitesh 5, 162.

Repetition of phrases, imitation, echo.

As regards choice of timbre, phrases in imitation are subject to the law of register. When a phrase is imitated in the upper register it should be given to an instrument of higher range and vice versa. If this rule is ignored an unnatural effect will be produced, as when the clarinet in its upper range replies to the oboe in the lower compass etc. The same rule must be followed in dealing with phrases, actually different, but similar in character; repeated phrases of different character should be scored in a manner most suitable to each.

Examples:

The Tsar's Bride 157, 161.

Legend of Kitesh 40-41.

* No. 251. Spanish Capriccio S.

In echo phrases, that is to say imitation entailing not only decrease in volume of tone but also an effect of distance, the second instrument should be weaker than the first, but the two should possess some sort of affinity. An echo given to muted brass following the same phrase not muted produces this distant effect. Muted trumpets are eminently suited to echo a theme in the oboes; flutes also may imitate clarinets and oboes successfully. A wood-wind instrument cannot be used to echo the strings, or vice versa, on account of the dissimilarity in timbre. Imitation in octaves (with a decrease in resonance) creates an effect resembling an echo.

Examples:

Ivan the Terrible, Act III 3.

No. 252. Sadko 264.

* Spanish Capriccio E.—This example is not precisely an echo but resembles one in character (cf. Ex. 44).

* Shéhérazade, 4th movement before O.

Sforzando-piano and piano-sforzando chords.

Besides the natural dynamic process of obtaining these marks of expression, a process which depends upon the player, they may also be produced by artificial means of orchestration.

a) At the moment when the wood-wind begins a piano chord, the strings attack it sforzando, a compound chord for preference, either arco or pizz. In the opposite case the sf in the strings must occur at the end of the wood-wind chord. The first method is also employed for a sf-dim., and the second for a cresc.-sf effect.

b) It is not so effective, and therefore less frequent to give the notes of sustained value to the strings, and the short chords to the wood-wind. In such cases the tenuto chord is played tremolando on the strings.

Examples:

Vera Scheloga, before 35, 38, 10th bar.

* No. 253. Legend of Kitesh, before 15-16.

* Shéhérazade, 2nd movement, P, 14th bar.

Method of emphasising certain notes and chords.

In order to stress or emphasise a certain note or chord, besides the marks of expression and sf, chords of 2, 3, and 4 notes can be inserted into the melodic progression by the instruments of the string quartet, each playing a single note; short notes in the wood-wind may also be used as well as a chain of three or four grace notes, in the form of a scale, either in strings or wood-wind. These unstressed notes (anacrusis), generally written very small, form a kind of upward glide, the downward direction being less common. As a rule they are connected to the main note by a slur. In the strings they should not lead up to chords of three or four notes, as this would be awkward for the bow.

Examples:

No. 254. The Tsar's Bride 142—Anacrusis in the strings.

* No. 255. Shéhérazade, 2nd movement C—Short pizz. chords.

* """ P—Short wind chords (cf. Ex. 19).

Crescendo and diminuendo.

Short crescendi and diminuendi are generally produced by natural dynamic means; when prolonged, they are obtained by this method combined with other orchestral devices. After the strings, the brass is the group most facile in producing dynamic shades of expression, glorifying crescendo chords into the most brilliant sforzando climaxes. Clarinets specialise in diminuendo effects and are capable of decreasing their tone to a breath (morendo). Prolonged orchestral crescendi are obtained by the gradual addition of other instruments in the following order: strings, wood-wind, brass. Diminuendo effects are accomplished by the elimination of the instruments in the reverse order (brass, wood-wind, strings). The scope of this work does not lend itself to the quotation of prolonged crescendo and diminuendo passages. The reader is referred, therefore, to the full scores:

* Shéhérazade, pp. 5-7, 92-96, 192-200.

* Antar 6, 51.

* The Christmas Night 183.

* Sadko 165-166.

* The Tsar's Bride 80-81.

Many examples of shorter crescendi and diminuendi will be found in Vol. II.

Diverging and converging progressions.

In the majority of cases, diverging and converging progressions simply consist in the gradual ascent of the three upper parts, with the bass descending. The distance separating the bass from the other parts is trifling at first, and grows by degrees. On the other hand, in converging progressions, the three upper parts, at first so far distant from the bass, gradually approach it. Sometimes these progressions involve an increase or a decrease in tone. The intermediate intervals are filled up by the introduction of fresh parts as the distance widens, so that the upper parts become doubled or trebled. In converging progressions the tripled and doubled parts are simplified, as the duplicating instruments cease to play. Moreover, if the harmony allows it, the group in the middle region which remains stationary is the group to be retained, or else the sustained note which guarantees unity in the operation. Below, the reader will find double examples of both descriptions. The first pair represents a diverging progression, 1. piano, in which the human voice takes part; 2. a purely orchestral crescendo. The second depicts two similar diverging progressions, firstly a gradual crescendo, secondly dim., during which the strings become more and more divided as the wind instruments cease to play. Ex. 258 accompanies the apparition of Mlada, Ex. 259, its disappearance. The atmosphere and colouring are weird and fanciful. The third pair of examples forms instances of converging progressions. In the first (Ex. 260) Princess Volkhova relates the wonders of the sea. Then in the middle of a powerful orchestral crescendo the Sea-King appears (Ex. 261). Both examples include a sustained stationary chord of the diminished seventh. The handling of such progressions requires the greatest care.

Examples:

No. 256-257. The Tsar's Bride 102 and 107.

No. 258-259. Mlada, Act III 12 and 19.

No. 260-261. Sadko 105 and 119.

Sadko 72 (cf. Ex. 112).

" before 315.

* The Christmas Night, beginning (cf. Ex. 106).

* No. 262. Antar, end of 3rd movement.

Tone quality as a harmonic force.

Harmonic basis.

Melodic design comprising notes foreign to the harmony, passing or grace notes, embellishments etc., does not permit that a florid outline should proceed at the same time with another one, reduced to essential and fundamental notes:

[Listen]

If, in the above example, the upper part is transposed an octave lower, the discordant effect produced by the contact of appoggiaturas and fundamental notes will be diminished; the quicker the passage is played the less harsh the effect will be, and vice versa. But it would be ill-advised to lay down any hard and fast rule as to the permissible length of these notes. There is no doubt that the harmonic notes, the thirds of the fundamental one (E) are more prominent from their proximity with the notes extraneous to the harmony. If the number of parts is increased (for instance, if the melodic figure is in thirds, sixths etc.), the question becomes still more complicated, since, to the original harmonic scheme, chords with different root bases are added, producing false relation.

Nevertheless, for the solution of such problems, orchestration provides an element of the greatest importance: difference of timbres. The greater the dissimilarity in timbre between the harmonic basis on the one hand and the melodic design on the other, the less discordant the notes extraneous to the harmony will sound. The best example of this is to be found between the human voice and the orchestra, next comes the difference of timbres between the groups of strings, wood-wind, plucked strings and percussion instruments. Less important differences occur between wood-wind and brass; in these two groups, therefore, the harmonic basis generally remains an octave removed from the melodic design, and should be of inferior dynamic power.

Examples of harmonic basis in chords:

No. 264. Pan Voyevoda, Introduction.

Legend of Kitesh, Introduction (cf. also Ex. 125 and 140).

* Mlada, Act III 10.

The harmonic basis may be ornamental in character, in which case it should move independently of the concurrent melodic design.

Examples:

* No. 265-266. Tsar Saltan 103-104, 128, 149, 162-165 (cf. below).

Chords the most widely opposed in character may be used on a simple, stationary harmonic basis, a basis, founded, for example, on the chord of the tonic or diminished seventh.

Examples:

No. 267. Legend of Kitesh 326-328—Wood-wind and harps on a string basis.

No. 268-269. Kashtcheï the Immortal 33, 43.

No. 270. Mlada, Act II, before 17, 18], 20.

No. 271. The Golden Cockerel 125—Chords of the diminished seventh, on arpeggio basis (augmented fifth).

The effect of alternating harmony produced between two melodic figures, e.g. one transmitting a note, held in abeyance, to the other, or the simultaneous progression of a figure in augmentation and diminution etc. becomes comprehensible and pleasant to the ear when the fundamental sustained harmony is different.

Examples:

Legend of Kitesh 34, 36, 297 (cf. Ex. 34 and 231).

No. 272-274. Tsar Saltan 104, 162-165 (cf. also 147-148).

* Russian Easter Fête, before V.

The whole question as to what is allowed and what forbidden in the employment of notes extraneous to the harmony is one of the most difficult in the whole range of composition; the permissible length of such notes is in no way established. In absence of artistic feeling, the composer who relies entirely on the difference between two timbres will often find himself using the most painful discords. Innovations in this direction in the latest post-Wagnerian music are often very questionable; they depress the ear and deaden the musical senses, leading to the unnatural conclusion that what is good, taken separately, must necessarily be good in combination.

Artificial effects.

I apply this name to some orchestral operations which are based on certain defects of hearing and faculty of perception. Having no wish to specify those that already exist or to foretell those which may yet be invented, I will mention, in passing, a few which have been used by me in my own works. To this class belong glissando scales or arpeggios in the harp, the notes of which do not correspond with those played simultaneously by other instruments, but which are used from the fact that long glissandi are more resonant and brilliant than short ones.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 325 (cf. Ex. 95).

No. 275. Pan Voyevoda 128.

* Shéhérazade, 3rd movement M, 5th bar (cf. Ex. 248).

* Russian Easter Fête D (cf. Ex. 248).

* Enharmonic glissando in the strings should also be mentioned.

No. 276. The Christmas Night 180, 13th bar—'Cellos glissando.

Use of percussion instruments for rhythm and colour.

Whenever some portion of the orchestra executes a rhythmic figure, percussion instruments should always be employed concurrently. An insignificant and playful rhythm is suitable to the triangle, tambourine, castanets and side drum, a vigourous and straightforward rhythm may be given to the bass drum, cymbals and gong. The strokes on these instruments should almost invariably correspond to the strong beats of the bar, highly-accented syncopated notes or disconnected sforzandi. The triangle, side drum and tambourine are capable of various rhythmic figures. Sometimes the percussion is used separately, independently of any other group of instruments.

The brass and wood-wind are the two groups which combine the most satisfactorily with percussion from the standpoint of colour. The triangle, side drum, and tambourine go best with harmony in the upper register; cymbals, bass drum and gong with harmony in the lower. The following are the combinations most generally employed: tremolo on the triangle and tambourine with trills in wood-wind and violins; tremolo on the side drum, or cymbals struck with drum sticks, and sustained chords on trumpets and horns; tremolo on the bass drum or the gong with chords on trombones or low sustained notes on 'cellos and double basses. It must not be forgotten that the bass drum, cymbals, gong and a tremolo on the side drum, played fortissimo, is sufficient to overpower any orchestral tutti.

* The reader will find instances of the use of percussion instruments in any full score, and in several examples of the present work.

Examples:

* Shéhérazade pp. 107-119, also many passages in 4th movement.

* Antar 40, 43 (cf. Ex. 73, 29).

* Spanish capriccio P (cf. Ex. 64); the cadences to be studied in the 4th movement, where they are accompanied by various percussion instruments.

* Russian Easter Fête K (cf. Ex. 217).

* The Tsar's Bride 140.

* Legend of Kitesh 196-197—"The Battle of Kerjémetz".

* Pan Voyevoda 71-72.

Economy in orchestral colour.

Neither musical feeling nor the ear itself can stand, for long, the full resources of the orchestra combined together. The favourite group of instruments is the strings, then follow in order the wood-wind, brass, kettle-drums, harps, pizzicato effects, and lastly the percussion, also, in point of order, triangle, cymbals, big drum, side drum, tambourine, gong. Further removed stand the celesta, glockenspiel and xylophone, which instruments, though melodic, are too characteristic in timbre to be employed over frequently. The same may be said of the piano and castanets. A quantity of national instruments not included in the present work may be incorporated into the orchestra; such are the guitar, the domra, zither, mandoline, the oriental tambourine, small tambourine etc. These instruments are employed from time to time for descriptive-aesthetic purposes.

These instruments are most frequently used in the above-named order. A group of instruments which has been silent for some time gains fresh interest upon its reappearance. The trombones, trumpets and tuba are occasionally tacet for long periods, the percussion is seldom employed, and practically never all together, but in single instruments or in two's and three's. In national dances or music in ballad style, percussion instruments may be used more freely.

After a long rest the re-entry of the horns, trombones and tuba should coincide with some characteristic intensity of tone, either pp or ff; piano and forte re-entries are less successful, while re-introducing these instruments mezzo-forte or mezzo-piano produces a colourless and common-place effect. This remark is capable of wider application. For the same reasons it is not good to commence or finish any piece of music either mf or mp. The scope of the musical examples in this work does not permit of illustrating by quotation the use of economy in orchestral colour, nor the re-entry of instruments thrown into prominence by prolonged rests. The reader must examine these questions in full scores.

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Chapter V.

COMBINATION OF THE HUMAN VOICE WITH ORCHESTRA.
THE STAGE BAND.

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Orchestral accompaniment of solo voices.

General remarks.

In accompanying the voice orchestral scoring should be light enough for the singer to make free use of all the dynamic shades of expression without hardness of tone. In overflowing lyrical moments, where full voice is required, the singer should be well supported by the orchestra.

Opera singing may be divided into two general classes, lyric singing and declamation or recitative. The full, round, legato aria affords greater facility for tone production than florid music or recitative, and the more movement and rhythmic detail contained in the vocal part, the greater freedom and liberty must there be given to the voice. In such a case the latter should not be doubled by the orchestra, neither should rhythmical figures be written for any instrument corresponding with those in the vocal part. In accompanying the voice the composer should bear these points in mind before turning his attention to the choice of orchestral colour. A confused, heavy accompaniment will overpower the singer; an accompaniment which is too simple in character will lack interest, and one which is too weak will not sustain the voice sufficiently.

In modern opera it is rare that orchestral writing is confined to accompaniment pure and simple. It frequently happens that the principal musical idea, often complex in character, is contained in the orchestra. The voice may then be said to form the accompaniment, exchanging musical for literary interest. It becomes subordinate to the orchestra, as though it were an extra part, subsequently added as an after-thought. But it is evident that great care must be taken with orchestral writing in such cases. The scoring must not be so heavy or complicated as to drown the voice and prevent the words from being heard, thereby breaking the thread of the text, and leaving the musical imagery unexplained. Certain moments may require great volume of orchestral tone, so great that a voice of even phenomenal power is incapable of being heard. Even if the singer is audible, such unequal struggles between voice and orchestra are most inartistic, and the composer should reserve his orchestral outbursts for the intervals during which the voice is silent, distributing the singer's phrases and pauses in a free and natural manner, according to the sense of the words. If a prolonged forte passage occurs in the orchestra it may be used concurrently with action on the stage. All artificial reduction of tone contrary to the true feeling of a passage, the sole object being to allow the voice to come through, should be strictly avoided, as it deprives orchestral writing of its distinctive brilliance. It must also be remembered that too great a disparity in volume of tone between purely orchestral passages and those which accompany the voice create an inartistic comparison. Therefore, when the orchestra is strengthened by the use of wood-wind in three's or four's, and brass in large numbers, the division of tone and colour must be manipulated skillfully and with the greatest care.

In previous sections I have frequently stated that the structure of the orchestra is closely related to the music itself. The scoring of a vocal work proves this relationship in a striking manner, and, indeed, it may be stipulated that only that which is well written can be well orchestrated.

Transparence of accompaniment. Harmony.

The group of strings is the most transparent medium and the one least likely to overpower the voice. Then come the wood-wind and the brass, the latter in the following order: horns, trombones, trumpets. A combination of strings, pizz., and the harp forms a setting eminently favourable for the voice. As a general rule a singer is more easily overpowered by long sustained notes than by short detached ones. Strings doubled in the wood-wind and brass, and brass doubled by wood-wind are combinations liable to drown the singer. This may be done even more easily by tremolando in the kettle-drums and other percussion instruments, which, even by themselves are capable of overpowering any other orchestral group of instruments. Doubling of wood-wind and horns, and the use of two clarinets, two oboes or two horns in unison to form one harmonic part is likewise to be avoided, as such combinations will have a similar effect on the voice. The frequent use of long sustained notes in the double basses is another course unfavourable to the singer; these notes in combination with the human voice produce a peculiar throbbing effect.

Juxtaposition of strings and wood-wind which overweights legato or declamatory singing may nevertheless be employed if one of the groups forms the harmony in sustained notes and the other executes a melodic design, when, for instance the sustaining instruments are clarinet, and bassoon, or bassoon and horn, and the melodic design is entrusted to violins or violas—or in the opposite case, when the harmony is given to violas and 'cellos divisi, and the harmonic figure to the clarinets.

Sustained harmony in the register of the second octave to the middle of the third does not overpower women's voices, as these develop outside this range; neither is it too heavy for men's voices, which although opening out within the range itself sound an octave higher, as in the case of the tenor voice. As a rule women's voices suffer more than men's when they come in contact with harmony in a register similar to their own. Taken separately, and used in moderation, each group of orchestral instruments may be considered favourable to each type of voice. But the combination of two or three groups cannot be so considered unless they each play an independent part and are not united together at full strength. Incessant four-part harmony is to be deprecated. Satisfactory results will be obtained when the number of harmonic parts is gradually decreased, with some of them sustaining pedal notes, and when the harmony, interspersed with necessary pauses is confined to the limits of one octave, distributed over several octaves, or duplicated in the higher register.

These manipulations allow the composer to come to the singer's aid; in voice-modulations, when the singer passes from the cantabile to the declamatory style, the composer may reduce or eliminate some harmony which is found to be too heavy as the vocal tone diminishes, and conversely, support the voice by a fuller orchestral tone in broad phrases and climaxes.

Ornamental writing and polyphonic accompaniment should never be too intricate in character, entailing the use of an unnecessary number of instruments. Some complicated figures are better partially entrusted to pizz. strings and harp, as this combination has little chance of overpowering the voice. Some examples of accompanying an aria are given below.

Examples:

The Tsar's Bride, Lykow's supplementary Aria (Act III).

""" 16-19—Griasnov's Aria.

No. 277. Snegourotchka 45.

* Snegourotchka 187-188, 212-213 the two Cavatinas of Tsar Berendey (cf. extracts, Ex. 102, 225).

No. 278. Sadko 143.

" 204-206—The Venetian's Song.

* Legend of Kitesh 39-41, 222-223 (cf. Ex. 31).

* The Golden Cockerel 153-157, 163.

Florid singing which limits volume of tone requires a light accompaniment, simple in outline and colour, involving no duplication of instruments.

Examples:

No. 279. Snegourotchka 42-48—Snegourotchka's Aria (Prologue), Fragment.

* Sadko 195-197—Hindoo Song (cf. Ex. 122).

* The Christmas Night 45-50—Oxana's Aria.

* The Golden Cockerel 131-136—Aria of Queen Shémakhâ.

Doubling voices in the orchestra.

Melodic doubling of voices by orchestral instruments (in unison or octaves) is of frequent occurrence, but incessant duplication for an extended period of time should be avoided; it is only permissible in isolated phrases. The most natural duplication in unison of womens' voices is performed by violins, violas, clarinets and oboes; that of mens' voices by violas, 'cellos, bassoons and horns. Doubling in octaves is usually done in the upper register. Trombones and trumpets overpower the voice and cannot be used for this purpose. Uninterrupted or too frequent duplication should be avoided, not only because the operation deprives the singer of full freedom of expression, but also because it replaces by a mixed timbre the rare characteristic qualities of the human voice. Doubling, when limited to a few special phrases supports the voice and endows it with beauty and colour. It is only suitable in tempo; to apply it, in unison or octaves to a passage ad. lib. is both ineffective and dangerous.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 50-52—Snegourotchka's Arietta (cf. Ex. 41).

Sadko 309-311—Volkhova's Cradle-song (cf. Ex. 81).

Besides the question of doubling the voice for the object of colour there are instances when the singer executes only part of a phrase, allotted in its entirely to an orchestral instrument.

Example:

Vera Scheloga 30, 36 (cf. Ex. 49).

Lyrical climaxes, a piena voce, or dramatic passages for the voice situated outside its normal range should be supported melodically and harmonically by the orchestra, in the register in which the voice is placed. The culminating point in such passages often coincides with the entry or sudden attack of the trombones or other brass instruments, or by a rush of strings. Strengthening the accompaniment in this manner will soften the tone of the voice.

Examples:

No. 280. The Tsar's Bride 206.

Servilia 126-127.

" 232.

No. 281. Sadko 314.

Vera Scheloga 41.

If the culminating point is soft in colour and outline it is better left unsupported in the orchestra, but sometimes the wood-wind, sustaining such passages with light transparent melody or harmony may produce an entrancing effect.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 188.

" 318 (cf. Ex. 119).

No. 282. The Tsar's Bride 214.

It is a common practice to support voices in concerted numbers by harmony and duplication; this operation makes for accuracy and brilliance when applied to duets, trios, quartets etc.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 292-293—Duet (cf. Ex. 118).

Sadko 99-101—Duet (cf. Ex. 289 and 290).

No. 283. The Tsar's Bride 169—sextet.

""" 117 quartet.

Legend of Kitesh 341—quartet and sextet (cf. Ex. 305).

The beautiful effect produced by a solo instrument accompanying a cantabile aria cannot be denied. In such cases the instruments used are generally the violin, viola, and 'cello, or the flute, oboe, Eng. horn, clar., bass clar., bassoon, horn and harp. The accompaniment is often contrapuntal or composed of polyphonic designs. The solo instrument either plays alone or as the leading melodic voice in the ensemble. In combination with the voice, or associated with some action on the stage, a solo instrument is a powerful expedient for musical characterisation. Instances of this description are numerous.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 50—Soprano and oboe (cf. Ex. 41).

" 97—Contralto and Eng. horn.

" 243, 246—Baritone and bass clar. (cf. Ex. 47-48).

No. 284. The Tsar's Bride 108—Soprano, 'cello and oboe.

* The Golden Cockerel 163—Soprano and viola (cf. Ex. 226).

It is comparatively rare for percussion instruments to take part in accompanying the voice. The triangle is occasionally used, the cymbals less frequently. An accompaniment may be formed by a figure or a tremolo on the kettle-drums.

Examples:

Snegourotchka 97, 224, 247 (Lell's 1st and 3rd songs).

Tsar Saltan, before 5.

* No. 285. The Golden Cockerel 135; cf. also 161, 197.

The following are examples of powerful and expressive orchestral passages, the voice tacet:

No. 286. The Tsar's Bride 81.

* Legend of Kitesh 282, 298.

* Servilia 130.

Recitative and declamation.

The accompaniment of recitative and melodic declamatory phrases should be light enough to allow the voice to come through without strain, and the words to be heard distinctly. The most convenient method is to employ sustained chords and tremolo on the strings or wood-wind, giving free latitude to the voice from a rhythmic point of view (a piacere).

Another excellent plan is to write short chords in the strings combined with wood-wind in different ways. Sustained chords and those entailing change of position should occur preferably when the voice is silent, thus permitting both conductor and orchestra to keep a closer watch over the singer's irregularities of rhythm in a piacere recitatives. If the accompaniment is more complex in character, melodic, polyphonic or ornamental in design, the recitative must be sung in tempo. Any phrase which it is necessary to emphasise in accordance with the sense of the words assumes a more cantabile character, and must be reinforced by the orchestra. Opera, today, besides demanding much greater care in the treatment of the text than in the past, abounds in constant transition from declamation to cantabile, or in the fusion of the two. The orchestra offers more variety of texture and must be handled with greater regard to its relationship to the words, and the action on the stage. This class of orchestration can only be studied from lengthy examples. I refer the reader to operatic full scores and content myself with giving one or short instances:

Examples:

No. 287. Snegourotchka 16.

No. 288. The Tsar's Bride 124-125.

The following double examples, similar from a musical point of view, show different methods of handling an orchestra from the standpoint of accompaniment to the voice, and the tutti form.

Examples:

No. 289-291. Sadko 99-101 and 305-307 (compare also Ex. 75).

Vera Scheloga 3-7 and 28.

Care should be taken not to score too heavily when accompanying singers in the wings.

Examples:

* No. 292. Sadko 316, 318, 320.

* Legend of Kitesh 286-289, 304-305.

Orchestral accompaniment of the chorus.

The chorus, possessing much greater unity and power than the solo voice, does not demand such careful handling in the accompaniment. On the contrary, too great a refinement of orchestral treatment will prove harmful to the resonance of the chorus. As a general rule orchestration of choral works follows the rules laid down for purely instrumental scoring. It is obvious that dynamic marks of expression must correspond in both bodies, but doubling one orchestral group with another and coupling instruments of the same kind in unison (2 Ob., 2 Cl., 4 Horns, 3 Trombones etc.) are both possible operations, if performed according to the requirements of the musical context. Doubling choral parts by instruments is generally a good plan. In cantabile passages such duplication may be melodic in character, and the design more ornamental in the orchestra than in the chorus.

Examples:

Ivan the Terrible, Act II 3-6; Act III 66-69.

The May Night, Act I X-Y; Act III L-Ee, Ddd-Fff.

Snegourotchka 61-73, 147-153, 323-328.

Mlada, Act II 22-31, 45-63; Act IV 31-36.

The Christmas Night 59-61, 115-123.

Sadko 37-39, 50-53, 79-86, 173, 177, 187, 189, 218-221, 233, 270-273.

The Tsar's Bride 29-30, 40-42, 50-59, 141.

Tsar Saltan 67-71, 91-93, 133-145, 207-208.

Legend of Kitesh 167, 177-178.

The Golden Cockerel 237-238, 262-264.

The reader will find instances of choral accompaniment in many examples relating to other sections of the work.

In the case of solitary exclamations or phrases in recitative, melodic doubling is not always suitable. It is better to support the voice simply by harmonic duplication.

The repetition of notes—required by declamation—forming no fundamental part of the rhythmical structure of a phrase or chord should not be reproduced in the orchestra; the melodic or harmonic basis alone should be doubled. Sometimes the rhythmical structure of a choral phrase is simplified in comparison with its orchestral duplication.

Examples:

No. 293. The Tsar's Bride 96.

No. 294. Ivan the Terrible, Act I, before 75.

Choral passages, the musical context of which is complete in itself, forming a chorus a cappella often remain undoubled by the orchestra, accompanied solely by sustained notes or an independent polyphonic figure.

Examples:

No. 295. Sadko 219.

* Tsar Saltan 207.

* Legend of Kitesh 167 (cf. Ex. 116).

* The Golden Cockerel 236.

Heavier scoring is required for a mixed chorus; for a male voice chorus the orchestration should be lighter; still more so for women's voices alone. In scoring a certain passage the composer should not lose sight of the number of choristers he is employing, for scenic conditions may necessitate a reduction of that figure. The approximate number should be marked in the full score as a basis upon which to work.

Examples:

No. 296. Ivan the Terrible, Act II 37.

* Sadko 17, 20.

* Legend of Kitesh 61 (cf. Ex. 198).