* The Tsar's Bride 179 (cf. Ex. 243).
Antar 65—Alternation of notes in horns and wood-wind on trombone chords (cf. Ex. 32).
General observations. It is not always possible to secure proper balance in scoring for full wood-wind. For instance, in a succession of chords where the melodic position is constantly changing, distribution is subordinate to correct progression of parts. In practice, however, any inequality of tone may be counterbalanced by the following acoustic phenomenon: in every chord the parts in octaves strengthen one another, the harmonic sounds in the lowest register coinciding with and supporting those in the highest. In spite of this fact it rests entirely with the orchestrator to obtain the best possible balance of tone; in difficult cases this may be secured by judicious dynamic grading, marking the wood-wind one degree louder than the brass.
B. Combination of strings and wind.
1. We frequently meet with the combination of strings and wood-wind in the light of comparison of one timbre with another, either in long sustained notes, or tremolando in the strings. Apart from the complete or partial doubling of the string quartet (two methods frequently used), the general and most natural arrangement is:
| Fl. Ob. (Cl.) |
+ Vns div.; | Clar. Fag. |
+ 'Cellos + Violas div., etc. |
Examples:
* Sadko, Symphonic Tableau before 4, and 4, 9th bar.
* Shéhérazade, 1st movement M 6 Vns soli + 2 Ob. (2 Fl.), Cl.
* Antar 7—String quartet divisi + wood-wind (cf. Ex. 151).
* No. 171. Antar 57—Vns II, Violas div. + Fl., Horn (florid accompaniment in the Clar.).
* Legend of Kitesh 295—the same; rhythmic motion in the wind, sustained harmony in the strings (cf. Ex. 213).
2. Owing to the complete absence of any affinity in tone quality, the combination of strings with brass is seldom employed in juxtaposition, crossing, or enclosure of parts.
The first method may be used however when the harmony is formed by the strings tremolando, and the brass is employed in sustaining chords, also when the strings play short disconnected chords, sforzando. Another possible exception may be mentioned; the splendid effect of horns doubled by divided violas or 'cellos.
Examples:
Snegourotchka 242—Full brass + strings tremolando (cf. 1st Table of chords, Ex. 6).
* Legend of Kitesh, before 240—the same (Horn, Trumpet +).
* Sadko, Opera, before 34—Horn + Violas div., Trombones + 'Cellos div.[16]
C. Combination of the three groups.
The combination of strings, wood-wind and brass instruments, set side by side, produces a full, round and firm tone.
Examples:
No. 172. The Tsar's Bride, before 145—Ob., Fag. + Horns + Strings.
"""final chord (cf. Table I of chords, Ex. 5).
* No. 173. Sadko, end of 1st tableau—short chords. Last chords of the 1st, 3rd and 7th tableaux (cf. Table I and III, Vol. II, Ex. 9, 10, 18).
* No. 174. The Christmas Night 22—Wind + Brass c. sord. + tremolo strings.
Legend of Kitesh 162 (cf. Ex. 250).
Snegourotchka—end of opera, (cf. Table III in Vol. II, Ex. 17) and a host of other examples.
General Observations. Balance and correct distribution of tone is much more important in dealing with long sustained chords or those of rhythmic design; in the case of short, disconnected chords resonance is a minor consideration, but one which should not be entirely neglected.
I have endeavoured to outline the general principles to be followed, but I do not profess to deal with all the countless cases which may arise in the course of orchestration. I have given a few examples of well-sounding chords; for further information I advise the reader to study full scores with care, as this is the only method to acquire perfect knowledge of the distribution and doubling of various instruments.
Chapter IV.
COMPOSITION OF THE ORCHESTRA.
Different ways of orchestrating the same music.
There are times when the general tone, character and atmosphere of a passage, or a given moment in an orchestral work point to one, and only one particular manner of scoring. The following simple example will serve for explanation. Take a short phrase where a flourish or fanfare call is given out above a tremolando accompaniment, with or without change in harmony. There is no doubt that any orchestrator would assign the tremolo to the strings and the fanfare to a trumpet, never vice versa. But taking this for granted, the composer or orchestrator may still be left in doubt. Is the fanfare flourish suitable to the range of a trumpet? Should it be written for two or three trumpets in unison, or doubled by other instruments? Can any of these methods be employed without damaging the musical meaning? These are questions which I shall endeavour to answer.
If the phrase is too low in register for the trumpets it should be given to the horns (instruments allied to the trumpet); if the phrase is too high it may be entrusted to the oboes and clarinets in unison, this combination possessing the closest resemblance to the trumpet tone both in character and power. The question whether one trumpet or two should be employed must be decided by the degree of power to be vested in the given passage. If a big sonorous effect is required the instruments may be doubled, tripled, or even multiplied by four; in the opposite case one solo brass instrument, or two of the wood-wind will suffice (1 Ob. + 1 Cl.). The question whether the tremolo in the strings should be supported by sustained harmony in the wood-wind depends upon the purpose in view. A composer realises his intentions beforehand, others who orchestrate his music can only proceed by conjecture. Should the composer desire to establish a strongly-marked difference between the harmonic basis and the melodic outline it is better not to employ wood-wind harmony, but to obtain proper balance of tone by carefully distributing his dynamic marks of expression, pp, p, f and ff. If, on the contrary, the composer desires a full round tone as harmonic basis and less show of brilliance in the harmonic parts, the use of harmony in the wood-wind is to be recommended. The following may serve as a guide to the scoring of wood-wind chords: the harmonic basis should differ from the melody not only in fullness and intensity of tone, but also in colour. If the fanfare figure is allotted to the brass (trumpets or horns) the harmony should be given to the wood-wind; if the phrase is given to the wood-wind (oboes and clarinets) the harmony should be entrusted to the horns. To solve all these questions successfully a composer must have full knowledge of the purpose he has in view, and those who orchestrate his work should be permeated with his intentions. Here the question arises, what should those intentions be? This is a more difficult subject.
The aim of a composer is closely allied to the form of his work, to the aesthetic meaning of its every moment and phrase considered apart, and in relation to the composition as a whole. The choice of an orchestral scheme depends on the musical matter, the colouring of preceding and subsequent passages. It is important to determine whether a given passage is a complement to or a contrast with what goes before and comes after, whether it forms a climax or merely a step in the general march of musical thought. It would be impossible to examine all such possible types of relationship, or to consider the rôle played by each passage quoted in the present work. The reader is therefore advised not to pay too much attention to the examples given, but to study them and their bearing on the context in their proper place in the full scores. Nevertheless I shall touch upon a few of these points in the course of the following outline. To begin with, young and inexperienced composers do not always possess a clear idea of what they wish to do. They can improve in this direction by reading good scores and by repeatedly listening to an orchestra, provided they concentrate the mind to the fullest possible extent. The search after extravagant and daring effects in orchestration is quite a different thing from mere caprice; the will to achieve is not sufficient; there are certain things which should not be achieved.
The simplest musical ideas, melodic phrases in unison and octaves, or repeated throughout several octaves, chords, of which no single part has any melodic meaning are scored in various ways according to register, dynamic effect and the quality of expression or tone colour that may be desired. In many cases, one idea will be orchestrated in a different way every time it recurs. Later on I shall frequently touch upon this more complicated question.
Examples:
* Snegourotchka 58; 65 and before 68—sustained note in unison.
There are fewer possible ways of scoring more complex musical ideas, harmonico-melodic phrases, polyphonic designs etc.; sometimes there are but two methods to be followed, for each of the primary elements in music, melody, harmony, and counterpoint possesses its own special requirements, regulating the choice of instruments and tone colour. The most complicated musical ideas sometimes admit of only one manner of scoring, with a few hardly noticeable variations in detail. To the following example, very simple in structure I add an alternative method of scoring:
Example:
No. 175. Vera Scheloga, before 35—a) actual orchestration, *b)—another method.
It is obvious that the method b) will produce satisfactory tone. But a 3rd and 4th way of scoring would be less successful, and a continuation of this process would soon lead to the ridiculous. For instance if the chords were given to the brass the whole passage would sound heavy, and the soprano recitative in the low and middle register would be overpowered. If the F sharp in the double basses were played arco by 'cellos and basses together it would sound clumsy, if it were given to the bassoons a comic effect would be produced, and if played by the brass it would sound rough and coarse, etc.
The object of scoring the same musical phrase in different ways is to obtain variety either in tone colour or resonance. In each case the composer may resort to the inversion of the normal order of instruments, duplication of parts, or the two processes in combination. The first of these is not always feasible. In the preceding sections of the book I have tried to explain the characteristics of each instrument and the part which each group of instruments plays in the orchestra. Moreover many methods of doubling are to be avoided; these I have mentioned, while there are also some instruments which cannot be combined owing to the great difference in their peculiarities. Therefore, as regards the general composition of the orchestra, the student should be guided by the general principles laid down in the earlier stages of the present work.
The best means of orchestrating the same musical idea in various ways is by the adaptation of the musical matter. This can be done by the following operations: a) complete or partial transference into other octaves; b) repetition in a different key; c) extension of the whole range by the addition of octaves to the upper and lower parts; d) alteration of details (the most frequent method); e) variation of the general dynamic scheme, e.g. repeating a phrase piano, which has already been played forte.
These operations are always successful in producing variety of orchestral colour.
Examples:
No. 176, 177. Russian Easter Fête A and C.
The Christmas Night 158 and 179.
No. 178-181. The Tsar's Bride, Overture: beginning, 1, 2, 7.
Sadko 99-101 and 305-307 (cf. Ex. 289, 290, and 75).
No. 182-186. Tsar Saltan 14, 17, 26, 28, 34.
* No. 190-191. Ivan the Terrible, Overture 5 and 12.
Spanish Capriccio—compare 1st and 3rd movement.
* No. 192-195. Shéhérazade, 1st movement—beginning of the allegro A, E, M.
" 3rd movement—beginning A, I.
" 3rd" E, G, O.
* No. 196-198. Legend of Kitesh 55, 56, 62.
(Cf. also Ex. 213, 214. Legend of Kitesh 294 and 312.)
* No. 202-203. The Golden Cockerel 229, 233.
The process of scoring the same or similar ideas in different ways is the source of numerous musical operations, crescendo, diminuendo, interchange of tone qualities, variation of tone colour etc., and incidentally throws new light upon the fundamental composition of the orchestra.
Full Tutti.
The word tutti generally means the simultaneous use of all instruments, but the word "all" is used relatively, and it must not be inferred that every single instrument must necessarily be employed to form a tutti. In order to simplify the following illustrations I will divide the word into two classes, full tutti and partial tutti,—independently of whether the orchestra is constructed in pairs, in three's, or a larger number of instruments. I call full tutti the combination of all melodic groups, strings, wind, and brass. By partial tutti I mean passages in which the brass group only takes part, whether two horns or two trumpets participate alone, or whether two horns are combined with one or three trombones, without tuba, trumpets, or the two remaining horns, etc.:
| [ | 4 Horns, | 2 Horns | 2 Horns | ]. | |
| . . . . | or 2 Trumpets, or | . . . . . . | etc. | ||
| . . . . | . . . . . . | 3 Trombones |
In both species of tutti full wood-wind may be employed or not, according to the register and musical context of the passage. For instance, in the extreme high register it may be essential to include the piccolo; in the low register flutes will be unnecessary, and yet the passage can still be called tutti. The inclusion of kettle-drums, harp, and other instruments of little sustaining power, as of the percussion in general, does not come under discussion.
The variety of orchestral operations increases with the number of instruments forming a tutti, in fact, so great does it become that it is impossible to consider all combinations. I can only give a few examples of full and partial tutti, and leave the reader to draw his own conclusions. Some of these examples fall under the double heading of full and partial tutti, and the student is reminded that the tutti is used essentially in forte and fortissimo, rarely in pianissimo and piano passages.
Examples:
Snegourotchka 61 and 62—Partial and full Tutti.
" 231 Partial Tutti, without the trumpets (cf. Ex. 8).
No. 204. Snegourotchka 216—Full Tutti.
" 325-326—Full Tutti and chorus (cf. Ex. 8).
Sadko 3, 223, 239—Full Tutti (cf. Ex. 86).
No. 205-206. Sadko 173, 177—Full Tutti with chorus, differently scored.
No. 207-208. The Christmas Night 184 and 186—Full Tutti, orchestrated in different ways, with and without chorus.
* The Tsar's Bride, Overture 1, 2, 7—Full and partial Tutti (cf. Ex. 179-181).
* """ 141—Full Tutti.
* """ 177— ""
Pan Voyevoda 186 and 188 Full Tutti.
* Antar 65—(cf. Ex. 32).
* No. 209. Shéhérazade, 3rd movement M; cf. also 1st movement A, E, H; 2nd movement K, P, R; 3rd movement G, O; 4th movement G, P, W and further on to Y (No. 193, 194, 19, 66, 77).
* Spanish Capriccio B, F, J, P, V, X-Z (cf. Ex. 3).
* Russian Easter Fête F, J, before L, Y, up to the end.
* 3rd Symphony, 1st movement D, R-T, X; 2nd movement A, E; 4th movement A, H, S.
* Sadko, Symphonic tableau 20-24.
* Mlada, Act III 12 (cf. Ex. 258).
* For examples of Tutti chords, see special Tables at the end of Vol. II.
Tutti in the wind.
In many cases the wood-wind and brass groups can form a tutti by themselves for periods of varying length. Sometimes this is effected by the wood-wind alone, but more frequently with the support of horns. At other times the horns are found alone without the wood-wind, and, lastly, a tutti may be comprised of instruments of each group in varying numbers. The addition of kettle-drums and the rest of the percussion is quite common and constitutes what the Germans call "Janitscharenmusik", or Turkish infantry music. Violoncellos and double basses playing more or less important pizz. notes are often added to wood-wind instruments (tutti), likewise the remainder of the strings and the harps; this process renders the sustained notes in the wood-wind more distinct. Tutti passages in wood-wind and horns do not produce any great amount of power in forte passages, but, on the other hand tutti in the brass groups alone may attain an extraordinary volume of tone. In the following examples the formation of pedal notes by strings or wood-wind in no way alters the general character of the Tutti:
Examples:
No. 210-211. Snegourotchka 149, 151 (compare).
Tsar Saltan 14, 17, 26 (cf. Ex. 182-184).
Pan Voyevoda 57, 186, 262.
No. 212. Ivan the Terrible, Act II 19; cf. also Act. III 5.
* No. 213-214. Legend of Kitesh 294, 312 (compare).
* No. 215. The Golden Cockerel 116; cf. also 82 and 84.
* Antar 37 (cf. Ex. 65).
Tutti pizzicato.
The quartet of strings (pizzicato), reinforced occasionally by the harp and piano, may, in certain cases constitute a particular kind of tutti, which can only attain any great degree of strength by support from the wood-wind. Without this support it is of medium power, though still fairly brilliant in quality.
Examples:
No. 216. Snegourotchka, before 128; cf. also 153 and before 305.
* No. 217. Russian Easter Fête K; cf. also U and V.
* Spanish Capriccio A, C, before S, before P; cf. also O (Ex. 56).
Mlada, Act II 15.
* Sadko: 220 (cf. Ex. 295).
* Legend of Kitesh 101.
* No. 218. The May Night, Act I, The Mayor's Song—combination of strings, arco and pizz.
Tutti in one, two and three parts.
It often happens that a moderately full orchestral ensemble executes a passage composed of one or two harmonic parts, in unison or in octaves. Such melodic phrases call for more or less simple orchestration with the usual doubling of parts, or, in ornamental writing, admit of contrast in tone colouring, occasionally with the addition of sustained notes.
Examples:
Snegourotchka, before 152, 174, 176.
The Tsar's Bride 120-121 (cf. Ex. 63).
The Golden Cockerel 215.
* No. 219-221. Legend of Kitesh 142, 144, 147—3 part Tutti, with different scoring.
* Legend of Kitesh 138, 139—Tutti in one part.
Soli in the strings.
Although, in any orchestral piece, numerous instances are to be found of melodies and phrases entrusted to a solo wind instrument (generally the first of each group, wood-wind or brass), solos for stringed instruments, on the other hand, are extremely rare. Whilst the 1st violin and 1st 'cello are fairly frequently used in this manner, the solo viola is seldom found, and a solo on the double bass is practically unknown. Phrases demanding particular individuality of expression are entrusted to solo instruments; likewise passages that require extraordinary technique, beyond the scope of the orchestral rank and file. The comparatively weak tone of the solo instrument necessitates light, transparent accompaniment. Difficult virtuoso solos should not be written, as they attract too much attention to a particular instrument. Solo stringed instruments are also used when vigourous expression and technical facility are not required, but simply in order to obtain that singular difference in colour which exists between a solo stringed instrument and strings in unison. Two solo instruments can be coupled together, e.g. 2 Violins soli, etc. and in very rare cases a quartet of solo strings may be employed.
Examples:
Violin solo:
No. 222-223. Snegourotchka 54, 275.
The May Night, pp. 64-78.
Mlada, Act I 52; Act III, before 19.
* A Fairy Tale W.
* Shéhérazade, 1st movement C, G; also the passages at the start of each movement.
* Spanish Capriccio H, K, R, and the cadence on p. 38.
* No. 224. Legend of Kitesh 310—Vn. solo, on harmonic basis of strings sul ponticello and wood-wind.
Snegourotchka 274, 279—2 Vns soli (cf. Ex. 9).
Viola solo:
No. 225. Snegourotchka 212.
Sadko 137.
* No. 226. The Golden Cockerel 163; cf. also 174, 177.
Violoncello solo:
Snegourotchka 187 (cf. Ex. 102).
The Christmas Night, before 29, 130.
Mlada, Act III 36.
* The Golden Cockerel 177, 180 (cf. Ex. 229).
Double bass solo:
* No. 227. Mlada, Act II 10-12—a special instance where the first string is tuned down.
Solo quartet:
The Christmas Night 222—Vn., Viola, 'Cello, D. bass.
* No. 228. Tsar Saltan 248—Vn. I, Vn. II, Viola, 'Cello.
* The case of a solo stringed instrument doubled by the wood-wind in unison must not be forgotten. The object is to attain great purity and abundance of tone, without impairing the timbre of the solo instrument (especially in the high and low registers), or to produce a certain highly-coloured effect.
Examples:
* Mlada, Act II 52—Vn. + Fl.; Act IV 31—Viol. + Fl. + Harp.
* The Christmas Night 212—2 Vns + Fl. + Small Cl. (cf. Ex. 153).
* Pan Voyevoda 67—2 Vns + 2 Ob.; 2 Violas + 2 Cl.
* Legend of Kitesh 306—Bass cl. + C-fag. (cf. Ex. 10).
""" 309—Vn. + Fl.
* No. 229. The Golden Cockerel 179—Vn. + Picc.; 'Cello + Bass cl.
* As shown in Chap. II, 2 Vns soli or Violin solo + Fl. (Picc.) are often sufficient to double a melody in the upper register.
Examples:
Sadko 207—cf. Chap. II, p. 42 and Ex. 24.
* No. 230. Russian Easter Fête, p. 32—2 Solo violins (in harmonics).
* No. 231. Legend of Kitesh 297—2 Solo violins + Picc.
Limits of orchestral range.
It is seldom that the entire orchestral conception is centred in the upper register of the orchestra (the 5th and 6th octaves), still more rarely is it focussed wholly in the lowest range (octaves 1 and -1) where the proximity of harmonic intervals creates a bad effect. In the first case the flutes and piccolo should be used along with the upper notes of the violins, soli or divisi; in the second case the double bassoon and the low notes of the bassoons, bass clarinet, horns, trombones and tuba are brought into play. The first method gives brilliant colour, the second combination is dark and gloomy. The contrary would be fundamentally impossible.
Examples:
| Pan Voyevoda 122, 137 | } | low register. |
| Servilia 168, 8th bar. (cf. Ex. 62) | ||
| No. 232. The Golden Cockerel 220; cf. also 218, 219 |
| * Snegourotchka, before 25 | } | high register. |
| * Legend of Kitesh, before 34 | ||
| * No. 233. The Golden Cockerel 113, 117 | ||
| * No. 234. Shéhérazade, 2nd movement pp. 59-62 |
The upper and lower parts of a passage can seldom be widely separated without the intermediate octaves being filled in, for this is contrary to the first principles of proper distribution of chords. Nevertheless the unusual resonance thus produced serves for strange and grotesque effects. In the first of the following examples the piccolo figure doubled by the harp and the sparkling notes of the glockenspiel is set about four octaves apart from the bass, which is assigned to a single Double bass and Tuba. But in the 3rd octave, the augmented fourths and diminished fifths in the two flutes help to fill up the intermediate space and lessen the distance between the two extreme parts, thus forming some sort of link between them. The general effect is fanciful.
Examples:
No. 235. Snegourotchka 255.
* No. 236. " 315, 5th and 6th bars.
" 274 (cf. Ex. 9).
A Fairy Tale A.
The Golden Cockerel 179, 9th bar. (cf. Ex. 229).
Transference of passages and phrases.
A phrase or a figure is often transferred from one instrument to another. In order to connect the phrases on each instrument in the best possible way, the last note of each part is made to coincide with the first note of the following one. This method is used for passages the range of which is too wide to be performed on any one instrument, or when it is desired to divide a phrase into two different timbres.
Examples:
* Snegourotchka 137—The melody is transferred from the violins to the flute and clarinet (cf. Ex. 28).
* " before 191—Solo violin—Solo 'cello.
Pan Voyevoda 57—Trombones—Trumpets; Horn—Ob. + Cl.
A similar operation is used in scoring passages covering the entire orchestral scale, or a great portion of it. When one instrument is on the point of completing its allotted part, another instrument takes up the passage, starting on one or two notes common to both parts, and so on. This division must be carried out to ensure the balance of the whole passage.
Examples:
Snegourotchka 36, 38, 131—Strings.
The Tsar's Bride 190—Wood-wind.
Sadko 72—Strings (cf. Ex. 112).
" 223—Strings.
The Christmas Night, before 180—Strings, wind and chorus (cf. Ex. 132).
* No. 237. The Christmas Night, before 181—String figure.
* Servilia 111—Strings (cf. Ex. 88).
" 29, 5th bar.—Ob.—Fl.; Cl.—Bass cl., Fag.
No. 238. The Golden Cockerel, before 9—Wood-wind.
* """ 5—Fag.—Eng. horn (+ 'Cellos pizz.).
Chords of different tone quality used alternately.
1. The most usual practice is to employ chords on different groups of instruments alternately. In dealing with chords in different registers care should be taken that the progression of parts, though broken in passing from one group to another, remains as regular as if there were no leap from octave to octave; this applies specially to chromatic passages in order to avoid false relation.
Examples:
No. 239. Ivan the Terrible, Act II 29.