Note. In Mozart and Salieri, which is only scored for 1 Fl., 1 Ob., 1 Cl. and 1 Fag., wood-wind chords in four-part harmony are of necessity devoted to these four different timbres.
The same rules apply to writing in three-part harmony, which is the most customary form when it is a question of establishing a harmonic basis, the lowest register of which is entrusted to another group of instruments (strings arco or pizz., for example). Chords in three-part harmony are generally given to two instruments of one timbre and a third instrument of another, but never to three different timbres. Overlaying of parts is the best course to adopt:
[Listen]
The use of crossing and enclosure of parts (which in a way amount to the same thing) must depend on the manner of their progression:
Enclosure:
[Listen]
B. Wood-wind in three's. Here the distribution of chords in close three-part harmony is self-evident; any grouping of three instruments of the same timbre is sure to sound well:
[Listen]
| also: |  |
| [Listen] |
[Listen]
Overlaying of parts is the best method to follow in writing close four-part harmony; three instruments of the same timbre with a fourth instrument of another. Crossing and enclosure of parts may also be employed. Correspondence of timbres and the progression of remote parts must be kept in mind:
[Listen]
The method of using three instruments of the same timbre in widely-divided three-part harmony is inferior:
Not good Better Better Not good Better Better
[Listen]
But if the third instrument is of low register (Bass Fl., Eng. horn, Bass cl., or C-fag.), the resonance will be satisfactory:
[Listen]
In chords of four-part harmony, three instruments of the same timbre should be combined with a fourth instrument of another:
[Listen]
Harmony in several parts.
In writing chords of 5, 6, 7 and 8 part-harmony, whether they are independent, or constitute the harmonic basis, the student should follow the principles outlined in the previous chapter, dealing with the progression of wood-wind instruments in octaves. As the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th notes are only duplications in octaves of lower notes of the real harmony (in 4 parts), instruments should be chosen which combine amongst themselves to give the best octaves. The process of crossing and enclosure of parts may also be used.
A. Wood-wind in pairs (close distribution):
[Listen]
In widely-divided harmony chords in several parts are to be avoided as they will entail both close and extended writing:
[Listen]
Note. In the majority of cases this distribution is employed when the two upper harmonic parts have a special melodic duty to perform—this question is discussed above.
B. Wood-wind in three's:
[Listen]
[Listen]
Overlaying of parts is the most satisfactory method in dealing with close three-part harmony. Crossing of parts is not so favourable, as octaves will be produced contrary to the natural order of register:
 |
Here the arrangement |  |
is bad. |
| [Listen] | [Listen] |
Duplication of timbres.
A. If the wood-wind is in pairs it is a good plan to mix the doubled timbres as much as possible:
Excellent
[Listen]
| also: |  |
| [Listen] |
In chords of four-part harmony the classical method may be adopted:
[Listen]
In this case, though the high C in the flute is fairly powerful, the resonance of the G and E in the oboes is softened by the duplication of the 2nd flute and 1st clarinet, while the C in the 2nd clarinets (not doubled) is feeble in comparison with the other notes. In any case the two extreme parts are the thinnest and weakest in tone, the intermediate parts the fullest and strongest.
B. Wood-wind in three's admit of perfectly balanced mixed timbres in chords of three-part harmony:
[Listen]
These timbres may even originate from three-fold duplication:
[Listen]
Remarks.
1. Modern orchestrators do not allow any void in the intermediate parts in writing close harmony; it was permitted to some extent by the classics:
[Listen]
These empty spaces create a bad effect especially in forte passages. For this reason widely-divided harmony, which is fundamentally based on the extension of intervals, can be used but seldom and only in piano passages. Close writing is the more frequent form in all harmony devoted to the wood-wind, forte or piano.
2. As a general rule a chord of greatly extended range and in several parts is distributed according to the order of the natural scale, with wide intervals (octaves and sixths), in the bass part, lesser intervals (fifths and fourths) in the middle, and close intervals (3rds or 2nds) in the upper register:
[Listen]
3. In many cases correct progression of parts demands that one of them should be temporarily doubled. In such cases the ear is reconciled to the brief overthrow of balance for the sake of a single part, and is thankful for the logical accuracy of the progression. The following example will illustrate my meaning:
[Listen]
In the second bar of this example the D is doubled in unison on account of the proximity of the three upper parts to their corresponding parts an octave lower. In the fourth bar the F is doubled in unison in both groups.
4. The formation of the harmonic basis, which is essentially in four parts, does not by any means devolve upon the wood-wind alone. One of the parts is often devoted to the strings, arco or pizz. More frequently the bass part is treated separately, the chords of greater value in the three upper parts being allotted to the wood-wind. Then, if the upper part is assigned to a group of strings, there remains nothing for the wind except the sustained harmony in the two middle parts. In the first case the three-part harmony in the wood-wind should form an independent whole, receiving no assistance from the bass; in this manner intervals of open fourths and fifths will be obviated. In the second case it is desirable to provide the intermediate parts with a moderately full tone, choosing no other intervals except seconds, sevenths, thirds or sixths.
All that has been said with regard to the use of wood-wind in the formation of harmony, and the division of simple and mixed timbres applies with equal force to sustained chords, or harmonic progressions interchanging rapidly with staccato chords. In short chords, separated by rests of some importance, the arrangement and division of timbres is not so perceptible to the ear, and progression of parts attracts less attention. It would be useless, nay, impossible to examine the countless combinations of tone colour, all the varieties of duplication and distribution of chords. It has been my aim to denote the fundamental principles upon which to work, and to indicate the general rules to be followed. Once having mastered these, if the student devote a little time to the study of full scores, and listen to them on the orchestra, he will soon learn when certain methods should be used and when to adopt others. The pupil is advised, generally, to write for wood-wind in its normal order of distribution, to take heed that each particular chord is composed entirely either of duplicated or non-duplicated parts, (except in certain cases resulting from progression), to use the methods of crossing and enclosure of timbres with full knowledge of what he is doing, and finally to concentrate his attention on close part-writing.
Examples of wood-wind harmony:
a) Independent chords.
No. 105. The Christmas Night 148—Cl., 2 Fag.
No. 106."""beginning—Ob., Cl., Fag. (crossing of parts).
Snegourotchka 16—2 Cl., Fag.
"79, 5th bar.—2 Ob., 2 Fag. (cf. Ex. 136).
* No. 107. Snegourotchka 197—Picc., 2 Fl. (tremolando).
No. 108. "204—2 Fl., 2 Ob. (high register).
No. 109. Shéhérazade, beginning—Total wood-wind in different distribution.
* Russian Easter Fête A—3 Fl. tremolando (cf. Ex. 176).
* Tsar Saltan 45 Ob., 2 Fag.
No. 110. Tsar Saltan, before 115—mixed timbres.
No. 111.""115, and other similar passages—very sweet effect of wood-wind in three's.
""177—2 Ob., 2 Fag.
Sadko, Symphonic Tableau 9—Ob., 2 Cl., Fag.
* Sadko, Opera 4—Eng. horn, 2 Cl.
""before 5—Total wood-wind.
No. 112. Sadko 72—Chords in three-part harmony; simple and mixed timbres.
* No. 113. The Tsar's Bride 126 Full wind.
* No. 114. Legend of Kitesh, before 90—Enclosure of parts (Ob. I in the high register).
No. 115."""before 161—Wind and brass alternately.
No. 116."""167—Full wind except oboe, with chorus.
Legend of Kitesh 269—Fl., Cl., Fag.
* The Golden Cockerel 125—Various wind instruments, 4 part harmony (cf. Ex. 271).
"""218—Ob., Eng. horn, Fag., C-fag.; cf. also 254.
No. 117. The Golden Cockerel, before 236—Mixed timbre; 2 Fag. form the bass.
b) Harmonic basis (sometimes joined by the horns).
The May Night, Act III L—2 Fag., Eng. horn (cf. Ex. 18).
Antar 68—3 Flutes.
Snegourotchka 20—2 Cl., high register.
"before 50—2 Fl., Fag.
"187—2 Ob., 2 Fag.
"274—2 Cl., low register (cf. Ex. 9).
"283—Fl., Eng. horn, Cl., Fag. (cf. Ex. 26).
No. 118. Snegourotchka 292—Widely-divided harmony and doubling of parts in the wind.
No. 119."318-319—2 Flutes.
Shéhérazade, 2nd movement B—2 Cl., Fag. (sustained note in the horn) (cf. Ex. 1).
The Christmas Night 1—3 Cl.
Sadko 1—Cl., Bass Cl., Fag., C-fag.
No. 120. Sadko 49—Ob., Cl., Horn, Fag.
No. 121. Sadko 144—Cl., Fag.
No. 122."195-196—2 Cl., Bass Cl.
The Tsar's Bride 80—Cl., Fag.
"""166—harmonic parts in motion, Fl. and Cl. (cf. Ex. 22).
Servilia 59—Cl. (low. register), Fag.
* No. 123. Kashtcheï the Immortal 80—Ob., Fag. muted.
* No. 124. Legend of Kitesh. 52—Fl., Fag.
"""55—Fl., Ob. (cf. Ex. 197).
"""68—Eng. horn, Fag., C-fag. (cf. Ex. 199).
No. 124."""118—mixed timbre: 2 Ob., Eng. horn and 3 Cl.
"""136—harmonic parts in motion:
"""before 185—3 Fl. (low register) and 2 Cl.
"""223—Fl., Ob., Cl. (cf. Ex. 31).
* No. 125."""247—2 Cl., Bass Cl.
"""273—Eng. horn, 2 Cl. and Bass Cl., Fag.
* No. 126."""355—Eng. horn muted, Cl., 2 Fag.
* No. 127. The Golden Cockerel 3—Cl., Bass Cl., Fag., C-fag.
"""40-41 Bass Cl., Fag.; Fl., Cl.; Cl., Bass Cl.
* No. 128."""156—harmonic parts in motion: Fl. and Cl.
Harmony in the brass.
Here, as in the wood-wind, part writing should be of the close order with no empty spaces in the intervals.
Four-part writing.
It is evident that the quartet of horns presents every facility for four-part harmony, perfectly balanced in tone, without doubling the bass in octaves:
[Listen]
Note. In the diagrams of the present section the actual sounds of horns and trumpets are given, as in a piano score, for the sake of simplicity.
When it is found necessary to double the bass in octaves, the too resonant trombone and tuba are seldom used, the duplication being effected by the bassoon, as explained further on. The quartet of trombones and tuba is not often employed in close four-part harmony; the third trombone and the tuba usually form the bass in octaves, and the three upper parts are generally allotted to the two remaining trombones reinforced by a trumpet or two horns in unison, so as to obtain a perfect balance of tone:
[Listen]
I have often adopted the following combination of brass instruments, and consider it eminently satisfactory: 2 horns and tuba to form the bass in octaves, the three other parts given to the trombones:
 |
(beautiful full resonance). |
| [Listen] |
In the higher registers, four-part harmony, of which the two upper parts are given to the trumpets, may be completed by two trombones or four horns in pairs:
[Listen]
When 3 trumpets are available the fourth part should be allotted to one trombone, or two horns in unison:
[Listen]
Enclosure of parts may be used in single chords:
[Listen]
or in progression:
[Listen]
Three-part writing.
The best combination is trombones, horns, or trumpets in three's. If the instruments are mixed the number of horns should be doubled:
[Listen]
Writing in several parts.
When the whole group is used the number of horns should be doubled:
[Listen]
In seven, six, or five-part harmony certain instruments must be omitted:
[Listen]
Discords of the seventh or second are preferably entrusted to instruments of different tone colour:
[Listen]
When such chords are written for an orchestra which only includes two trumpets, it is impossible for the horns to proceed in pairs. In such cases the following arrangement may obtain, the horns being marked one degree louder than the other instruments, to secure balance of tone:
[Listen]
The same method should be followed whenever the use of horns in pairs fails to produce satisfactory tone.
When chords of widely-divided harmony are distributed throughout several harmonic registers, the register occupied by the horns need not be doubled; the arrangement of the chord will resemble that of a chorale written for double or triple choir. For example:
[Listen]
Duplication in the brass.
Duplication in the brass group is most frequently effected by placing a chord for horns side by side with the same chord written for trumpets or trombones. The soft round quality of the horns intensifies the tone, and moderates the penetrating timbre of the trumpets and trombones:
[Listen]
Similar juxtaposition of trumpets and trombones:
[Listen]
is not so common, as this unites the two most powerful agents in the group.
In handling an orchestra the brass is frequently employed to sustain notes in two or three octaves; this sphere of activity must not be ignored. The tenuto is generally given to two trumpets, or to two or four horns in the octave, (in double octaves). The octave is sometimes formed by trumpets and horns acting together:
[Listen]
The trombone with its ponderous tone rarely takes part in such combinations. Sustained notes in double octaves are usually apportioned thus:
[Listen]
The imperfect balance arising from the duplication of the middle note is compensated for by the mixture of timbres, which lends some unity to the chord.
Examples of harmony in the brass:
a) Independent chords:
Snegourotchka 74—3 Trombones, 2 Horns.
"140—3 Trombones, 2 Horns. Chords in different groups alternately (cf. Ex. 244).
"171—Full brass; further on 3 Trombones (cf. Ex. 97).
No. 129. Snegourotchka, before 289—4 Horns.
"289—Full brass.
* Sadko, before 9—Full brass (enclosure of parts).
No. 130. Sadko 175—Mixed timbres (juxtaposition) 3 Horns + 3 Trumpets.
"before 338—Full brass except Tuba.
No. 131."191-193 (Full brass).
No. 132. The Christmas Night, before 180—Full muted brass.
"""181—4 Horns + 3 Trombones + Tuba (cf. Ex. 237).
* The Tsar's Bride 178—Strings and brass alternately (cf. Ex. 242).
* No. 133. Tsar Saltan 102, 7th bar.—2 Trumpets, 2 Trombones + 4 Horns (juxtaposition).
""230—Full brass, thickly scored (cf. Table of chords No. II at the end of Vol. II, Ex. 12).
* Servilia 154—Various brass instruments.
* Legend of Kitesh 130—3 Trumpets, Trombone and Tuba.
No. 134. Legend of Kitesh 199—Short chords (juxtaposition).
* No. 135. The Golden Cockerel 115—Horns, Trombones (enclosure).
b) Harmonic basis:
No. 136. Snegourotchka 79, 6th bar.—4 Horns.
"231—3 Trombones, soft and sweet (cf. Ex. 8).
Antar 64-65—4 Horns; later 3 Trombones (cf. Ex. 32).
* Shéhérazade, 1st movement, A, E, H, K, M—Harmonic bases of different power and timbre (cf. Ex. 192-195).
No. 137. Servilia 93—Full brass.
* No. 138. Tsar Saltan 127—4 muted Horns + 3 Trombones and Tuba con sord. pp.
""before 147—Full brass ff (the 2 Oboes and Eng. horn are of no particular importance).
* Pan Voyevoda 136, 9th bar.—4 Horns, then Trombones, 2 Horns.
* No. 139. Legend of Kitesh 158—Trumpets, Trombones.
No. 140."""248—3 Trombones.
"""before 362—Full brass.
Harmony in combined groups.
A. Combination of wind and brass.
Wind and brass instruments may be combined by the method of placing a chord in one timbre side by side with the same chord in another timbre, or by any of the three methods already described: overlaying, crossing and enclosure of parts.
1. In unison (juxtaposition or contrast of tone qualities).
This class of combination possesses the same features as combinations in the melodic line (cf. Chap. II). Wood-wind reinforces the brass, softens it and reduces its characteristic qualities. Arrangements such as the following are possible:
| 2 Trumpets + 2 Fl.; 3 Trumpets + 3 Fl.; |
2 Trumpets + 2 Ob.; 3 Trumpets + 3 Ob.; |
2 Trumpets + 2 Cl. 3 Trumpets + 3 Cl. |
Also
[Listen]
as well as:
| 2 Horns + 2 Fag.; 3 Horns + 3 Fag.; |
2 Horns + 2 Cl.; 3 Horns + 3 Cl.; and: |
2 Horns + 2 Fag. + 2 Cl. etc.
The combinations 3 Trombones + 3 Fag., or 3 Trombones + 3 Cl. are very rare.
A chord scored for full brass doubled by the same chords scored for full wood-wind (in pairs) produces a magnificent and uniform tone.
Examples:
Snegourotchka 315—2 Horns + 2 Cl. and 2 Horns + 2 Ob. (cf. Ex. 236).
No. 141. The Tsar's Bride 50—4 Horns + 2 Cl., 2 Fag.
No. 142."""142—Juxtaposition of full wind and brass.
Ivan the Terrible, Act II 30—Juxtaposition and enclosure (cf. Table of chords II, Ex. 8).
No. 143. The Christmas Night 165—4 Horns + Fl., Cl., Fag.
* No. 144. Sadko, before 79—Horn, Trumpet + doubled wood-wind.[15]
No. 145."242—Full brass + Fl., Cl.
Legend of Kitesh, beginning—Horn, Trombones + Cl., Fag. (cf. also 5—Ex. 249).
* No. 146. Legend of Kitesh 10—Eng. horn, 2 Cl., Fag. legato + 4 Horns non legato.
"""324—Full brass + wind.
* No. 147. The Golden Cockerel 233—
| Trumpets + Ob. Horn + Cl. |
] | 8. |
Stopped or muted notes in trumpets and horns resemble the oboe and Eng. horn in quality; the combination of these instruments produces a magnificent tone.
Examples:
No. 148. Russian Easter Fête, p. 11.—Horn (+), Trumpets (low register) + Ob., Cl.
* The Christmas Night, before 154—Full muted brass + wind.
* No. 149. Tsar Saltan 129—2 Ob., Eng. horn, + 3 Trumpets muted (3 Cl. at the bottom).
* No. 150.""131 17th bar.—Same combination with added horns.
* No. 151. Antar 7—Ob., Eng. horn, 2 Fag. + 4 Horns (+).
A beautiful dark tone is derived from the combination of middle notes in stopped horns and deep notes in the clarinet:
[Listen]
If bassoons are substituted for clarinets the effect loses part of its character.
Examples:
* Kashtcheï the Immortal 29, 11th bar,—2 Ob., 2 Cl. + 4 Horns (+).
"""107, 6th bar.—2 Cl., Fag. + 3 Horns (+).
* The Christmas Night, p. 249—Cl., Fag. + 3 Horns (+).
* Mlada, Act III 19—3 Horns (+) + 3 Fag. and 3 Horns (+) + 3 Ob. (cf. Ex. 259).
2. Overlaying (superposition), crossing, enclosure of parts.
It has already been stated that the bassoon and horn are the two instruments best capable of reconciling the groups of wood-wind and brass. Four-part harmony given to two bassoons and two horns, especially in soft passages, yields a finely-balanced tone recalling the effect of a quartet of horns, but possessing slightly greater transparence. In forte passages the horns overwhelm the bassoons, and it is wiser to employ four horns alone. In the former case crossing of parts is to be recommended for the purposes of blend, the concords being given to the horns, the discords to the bassoons:
 |
and not: |  |
| [Listen] | [Listen] |
Bassoons may also be written inside the horns, but the inverse process is not to be recommended:
[Listen]
The same insetting of parts may be used for sustained trumpet notes in octaves. In soft passages, thirds played in the low register of the flutes, sometimes combined with clarinets, produce a beautiful mysterious effect between trumpets in octaves. In a chain of consecutive chords it is advisable to entrust the stationary parts to the brass, the moving parts to the wood-wind.
Clarinets, on account of their tone quality should rarely be set inside the horns, but, in the upper register, and in the higher harmonic parts, a chord of four horns, (piano), may be completed by clarinets as effectively as by oboes or flutes; the bassoon may then double the base an octave below:
[Listen]
Played forte, the horns are more powerful than the wood-wind; balance may be established by doubling the upper harmonic parts:
[Listen]
Examples:
a) Superposition.
* Sadko, Symphonic Tableau 1, 9—Fl., Ob., Cl., Horn (basis).
"before 14—2 Fl., Cl., Horns.
"final chord—Fl., Cl., Horn.
* Antar 22—Fl., Cl., Horns (basis).
No. 152. Antar 56—3 Fl., 4 Horns (basis).
* Snegourotchka 300—Full wind and horns.
* Shéhérazade—Final chords of 1st and 4th movements.
* Russian Easter Fête D—Fl., Cl., Horn; later trumpets and trombones in juxtaposition (cf. Ex. 248).
* No. 153. The Christmas Night 212, 10th bar.—Wind and Horns; trumpets and trombones added later.
"""215
| 3 Fl. + 3 Cl. 3 Horns |
] | 8. |
* Sadko, Opera 165—Juxtaposition and Superposition.
No. 154. Sadko 338—Same distribution.
No. 155. Servilia 73
| 3 Fl + 2 Ob., Cl. 4 Horns. |
* No. 156. Legend of Kitesh, before 157—3 Flutes, 3 Trombones.
"""final chord (cf. Table III of chords, Ex. 15).
* The Golden Cockerel, before 219—Mixed timbre of wood-wind, 4 Horns.
b) Crossing.
* The Christmas Night, before 53—Horn, Fag.
"""107—Clar., Horn, Fag.
* Legend of Tsar Saltan, before 62—Horn, Fag.
* The Golden Cockerel 220—3 Trombones, 2 Fag., C-fag. (cf. Ex. 232).
* No. 157. Antar, before 30—Wood-wind, Horns, then Trumpets.
c) Enclosure:
No. 158. Ivan the Terrible, Act I 33—Flutes within horns; later horns within bassoons.
No. 159. Snegourotchka 183—
| Trumpet Fl., 2 Cl. Trumpet |
* Sadko, symphonic tableau 3—
| Cl. + Fag. 4 Horns Cl. + Fag. |
* Antar before 37—
| Fag. 2 Horns (+) Cl. |
* Sadko, Opera 105—Harmonic basis; oboes within trumpets (cf. Ex. 260).
* No. 160. Sadko, Opera, before 155—Flutes within trumpets.
* The Tsar's Bride, end of Overture—Bassoons within horns (cf. Table III of chords, Ex. 14).
* No. 161. Tsar Saltan 50—Trumpets within wood-wind doubled.
No. 162.""59—Flutes within trumpets; clarinets within horns.
* No. 163. Legend of Kitesh 82—Oboes and clarinets within trumpets.
The relationship which has been shown to exist between stopped horns and oboe or Eng. horn authorizes the simultaneous use of these instruments in one and the same chord, played p or sfp:
[Listen]
Examples:
* The Christmas Night 75—3 Horns (+) + Oboe.
The Tsar's Bride 123—Ob., Eng. horn, Horn (+) (cf. Ex. 240).
* Legend of Kitesh 244—Cl., 2 Fl., + 2 Ob., Eng. horn, 3 Horn (+).
* No. 164. Legend of Kitesh, before 256—
| 2 Ob., Eng. horn 3 Horns (+) |
] | 8. |
* Cf. also Tsar Saltan, before 115—
| Horn (+) 2 Fl. + 2 Fag. |
(Ex. 110). |
If trumpets and trombones take part in a chord, flutes, oboes and clarinets are better used to form the harmonic part above the trumpets. The following should be the arrangement:
[Listen]
[Listen]
Examples:
* Sadko, symphonic tableau 20.
* No. 165. The May Night, Act I Ee—3 Trombones, 2 Ob. + 2 Cl. + 2 Fag.
"""p. 325.—Final chord, C maj. (cf. Table I of chords, Ex. 1).
* No. 166. Snegourotchka 198; cf. also 200 and before 210.
* Shéhérazade, 1st movement E, 2nd movement P, 3rd movement M, 4th movement p. 203 (cf. Ex. 195, 19, 210, 77).
No. 167. The Christmas Night 205; cf. also 161, 212, 14th bar. (Ex. 100, 153).
* Mlada, end of Act I (cf. Chord Table II, Ex. 13). Act II 20.
No. 168-169. Sadko, Opera, before 249, 302; cf. also Ex. 120.
No. 170. Sadko, Opera 244—Chord of widely extended range; bassoons at the limit of low compass.
""142, 239; cf. also 3 (Ex. 86).